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Official name People's Republic of China, Chinese Zhonghua Renmin Gonghe Guo

Local name Zhongguo Timezone GMT +8 Area 9 597 000 km族/3 705 000 sq mi (also claims island of Taiwan) population total (2002e) 1 284 211 000 Status People's republic Capital Beijing (Peking) Languages Standard Chinese (Putonghua) or Mandarin, also Yue (Cantonese), Wu, Minbei, Minnan, Xiang, Gan and Hakka Ethnic groups Han Chinese (92%), over 50 minorities, including Chuang, Manchu, Hui, Miao, Uighur, Hani, Kazakh, Tai and Yao Religions Officially atheist; widespread Confucianism and Taoism (20%), Buddhism (6%) Physical features Over two-thirds of country are upland hills, mountains, and plateaux; highest mountains in the W, where the Tibetan plateau rises to average altitude of 4000 m/13 000 ft; Mt Everest rises to 8848 m/29 028 ft on the Nepal-Tibet border; land descends to desert/semi-desert of Xinjiang and Inner Mongolia (NE); broad and fertile plains of Manchuria (NE); further E and S, Sichuan basin, drained by Yangtze R (5980 km/3720 mi in length); Huang He (Yellow) R runs for 4840 km/3010 mi; heavily populated S plains and E coast, with rich, fertile soils. Climate Varied, with seven zones; (1) NE China: cold winters, with strong N winds, warm and humid summers, unreliable rainfall; (2) C China: warm and humid summers, sometimes typhoons or tropical cyclones on coast; (3) S China: partly within tropics; wettest area in summer, frequent typhoons; (4) SW China: summer temperatures moderated by altitude, winters mild with little rain; (5) Xizang autonomous region: high plateau surrounded by mountains; winters severe with frequent light snow and hard frost; (6) Xinjiang and W interior: arid desert climate, cold winters; rainfall well distributed throughout year; (7) Inner Mongolia: extreme continental climate; cold winters, warm summers. Currency 1 Renminbi Yuan (CNY) = 10 jiao = 100 fen Economy Since 1949, economy largely based on heavy industry; more recently, light industries; special economic zones set up to attract foreign investment; rich mineral deposits; largest oil-producing country in Far East; major subsistence crops include rice, grain, beans, potatoes, tea, sugar, cotton; economy hit by SARS epidemic (2003). GDP (2002e) $5·989 tn, per capita $4700 Human Development Index (2002) 0·726 History Chinese civilization believed to date from the Xia dynasty (2200–1799 BC); Qin dynasty (221–207 BC) unified warring states and provided system of centralized control; expansion W during Western and Eastern Han dynasties (206 BC– AD 220), and Buddhism introduced from India; split into Three Kingdoms (Wei, Shu, Wu, 220-65); period of Six dynasties (221–581); from 4th-c, series of N dynasties set up by invaders, with several dynasties in S; gradually reunited during the Sui (590–618) and Tang (618–906) dynasties; partition into the Five Dynasties (907–60); Song (Sung) dynasty (960–1279), remembered for literature, philosophy, inventions; Kublai Khan established Mongol Yuan dynasty which ruled China 1279–1368; visits by Europeans, such as Marco Polo, 13th-14th-c; Ming dynasty (1368–1644) increased contacts with West; overthrown by Manchus, who ruled China during 1644–1911 under the Qing dynasty, and enlarged empire to include Manchuria, Mongolia, Tibet, Taiwan; opposition to foreign imports led to Opium Wars 1839–42, 1858–60; Sino-Japanese War, 1895; Hundred Days of Reform movement, 1898; Boxer Rising, 1900; Qing dynasty overthrown, 1911; Republic of China founded by Sun Yatsen, 1912; May Fourth Movement, 1919; unification under Jiang Jieshi (Chiang Kai-shek), who made Nanjing capital in 1928; conflict between Nationalists and Communists led to the Long March, 1934–5, with Communists moving to NW China under Mao Zedong (Mao Tse-tung); Nationalist defeat by Mao and withdrawal to Taiwan in 1950; People's Republic of China proclaimed, 1949, with capital at Beijing; first Five-Year Plan (1953–7) period of nationalization and collectivization; Great Leap Forward, 1958–9, emphasized local authority and establishment of rural communes; Cultural Revolution initiated by Mao Zedong, 1966; many policies reversed after Mao's death in 1976, and drive towards rapid industrialization and wider trade relations with West; after 1980, Deng Xiaoping became the dominant figure within the ruling Chinese Communist Party; he retired from his last official post in 1990, but remained influential until his death in 1997; governed by elected National People's Congress who elect a State Council; Hong Kong returned to China, 1997; Qinghai–Tibet railway linking E China to Lhasa, opened 2006; Nathu La Pass historic trade route between China and India (closed 1962) re-opened 2006. For other meanings, see China (disambiguation).}}
China ((zh-tsht|t=??|s=??|hp=) is a cultural region and ancient civilization in East Asia. Due to the stalemate of the last Chinese Civil War following World War II, the word "China" is used today by two de facto separate states: the People's Republic of China (PRC) and the Republic of China (ROC). The PRC administers and governs mainland China, Hong Kong, and Macau, while the ROC administers and governs the island groups of Taiwan, the Pescadores, Kinmen, Matsu, and the disputed islands of Pratas and Taiping in the South China Sea. The successive states and cultures of China date back more than six millennia. China is also home to many of the great technical inventions in world history, including the four great inventions of ancient China: Paper, the compass, gunpowder, and printing.

Names

"Zhongguo", the Central Kingdom

China is called Zhongguo (also Romanized as Chung-kuo or Jhongguo) in Mandarin Chinese. published by UNC Press ISBN: 0807849324, while the less accurate translation "Middle Kingdom" can be considered as poor translation since the adjective "Middle" is normally used in one-dimensional sense"Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English Updated Edition", published by Longman ISBN: 1405811269, and it doesn't reflect the actual meaning of Zhongguo."The Opium Wars were not about opium", published by Greg McCulley.

The term has not been used consistently throughout Chinese history, and has carried varying cultural and political connotations.

During the Spring and Autumn Period, it was used only to describe the states politically descended from the Western Zhou Dynasty, in the Yellow River (Huang He) valley, to the exclusion of states such as the Chu along the Yangtze River and the Qin to the west. However, by the time of the Han Dynasty, the states of Chu, Qin and others had linked themselves to the politics of Zhongguo and were already considered integral parts of a newer Zhongguo.

During the Han Dynasty and before, Zhongguo had three distinctive meanings:

1. The area around the capital or imperial domain. The Records of Three Kingdoms records the following monologue: "If we can lead the host of Wu and Yue (the kingdoms in areas of present-day Shanghai, southern Jiangsu and northern Zhejiang) to oppose Zhongguo, then we should break off relations with them soon." It was used in this manner from the tenth century onwards by the competing dynasties of Liao, Jin and Song.
   

   Zhongguo quickly came to include areas farther south, as the cultural and political unit (not yet a "nation" in the modern sense) spread to include the Yangtze River and Pearl River systems. By the Tang Dynasty it included barbarian regimes such as the Xianbei and Xiongnu.
   

   The Republic of China, when it controlled mainland China, and later, the People's Republic of China, have used Zhongguo to mean all the territories and peoples within their political control. or ???), or Zhongguo people, though such claims remain politically controversial, especially when Zhongguo refers to the PRC.
   

   "China"

   English and many other languages use various forms of the name "China" and the prefix "Sino-" or "Sin-". The Qin Dynasty unified the written language in China and gave the supreme ruler of China the title of "Emperor" instead of "King," thus the subsequent Silk Road traders might have identified themselves by that name.
   
   The term "China" can also be used to refer to:
   
   • the modern state known as the People's Republic of China (PRC);
     
   • "Mainland China" (???? or ????, Zh?ngguó Dàlù in Mandarin), which is the territory of the PRC minus the two special administrative regions of Hong Kong and Macau;
     
   • "China proper", a term used to refer to the historical heartlands of China without peripheral areas like Manchuria, Inner Mongolia, Tibet, and Xinjiang
     

   In economic contexts, "Greater China" (????? or ?????) is a neutral and non-political way to refer to Mainland China, Hong Kong, Macau, Taiwan and sometimes Singapore. "Taiwan" often refers to the Republic of China.
   

   Sinologists usually use "Chinese" in a more restricted sense, akin to the classical usage of Zhongguo, to the Han ethnic group, which makes up the bulk of the population in China and of the overseas Chinese.
   

   "Cathay"

   The more historical and lyrical English term for China is "Cathay." Cathay is derived from the name of the Khitans (??) in northern China, founders of the Liao Dynasty. But it is now rarely used by English speakers, except when used poetically or in certain proper nouns such as Cathay Pacific, Cathay Organisation, The Cathay, and the former Cathay Hotel.

   Seres (?????)

   
   Seres (?????) was the ancient Greek and Roman name for the northwestern part of China and its inhabitants. Chinese civilization was also one of the few to invent writing independently, the others being ancient Mesopotamia (Sumerians), Ancient India (Indus Valley Civilization), the Mayan Civilization, and Ancient Egypt.

   Prehistory

   Archaeological evidence suggests that the earliest occupants in China date to as long as 2.24 million to 250,000 years ago by an ancient human relative (hominin) known as Homo erectus. erectus have been studied since the late 18th to 19th centuries in various areas of Eastern Asia including Indonesia (in particular Java) and Malaysia.
   
   Fully modern humans (Homo sapiens) are believed to originally have evolved roughly 200,000 and 168,000 years ago in the area of Ethiopia or Southern Africa (Homo sapiens idaltu).

   Dynastic rule

   The first dynasty according to Chinese sources was the Xia Dynasty, but it was believed to be mythical until scientific excavations were made at early bronze-age sites at Erlitou in Henan Province.
   
   The first reliable historical dynasty is the Shang, which settled along the Yellow River in eastern China from the 18th to the 12th century BCE. In the Spring and Autumn period there were many strong, independent states continually warring with each other, who deferred to the Zhou state in name only.
   The first unified Chinese state was established by the Qin Dynasty in 221 BCE, when the office of the emperor was set up. This state did not last long, as its legalist approach to control soon led to widespread rebellion.
   
   The Han Dynasty lasted from 206 BCE until 220 CE. Under the succeeding Tang and Song dynasties, China had its golden age. In 1271, Mongol leader Kublai Khan established the Yuan Dynasty, with the last remnant of the Song Dynasty falling to the Yuan in 1279. The Manchu-founded Qing Dynasty, which lasted until the overthrow of Puyi in 1911, was the final dynasty of China.
   
   Regime change was often violent and the new ruling class usually needed to take special measures to ensure the loyalty of the overthrown dynasty. For example, after the Manchus conquered China, the Manchu rulers put into effect measures aimed at subduing the Han Chinese identity, such as the requirement for the Han Chinese to wear the Manchu hairstyle, the queue.
   
   In the 18th century, China achieved a decisive technological advantage over the peoples of Central Asia, with which it had been at war for several centuries, while simultaneously falling behind Europe.
   
   In the 19th century China adopted a defensive posture towards European imperialism, even though it engaged in imperialistic expansion into Central Asia itself. It was started by Hong Xiuquan, who was partly influenced by Christianity and believed himself the son of God and the younger brother of Jesus.
   

   Republican China

   On January 1, 1912, the Republic of China was established, ending the Qing Dynasty. In the late 1920s, the Kuomintang, under Chiang Kai-shek, was able to reunify the country under its own control, moving the nation's capital to Nanjing and implementing "political tutelage", an intermediate stage of political development outlined in Sun Yat-sen's program for transforming China into a modern, democratic state.
   
   The Sino-Japanese War of 1937-1945 (part of World War II) forced an uneasy alliance between the Nationalists and the Communists.

   The People's Republic of China and the Republic of China

   After its victory in the Chinese Civil War, the Communist Party of China controlled most of Mainland China. On October 1, 1949, they established the People's Republic of China, laying claim to be the successor state of the ROC.
   
   Beginning in the late 1970s, the Republic of China began the implementation of full, multi-party, representative democracy in the territories still under its control (i.e., Taiwan Province, Taipei, Kaohsiung and some offshore islands of Fujian province). Examples include the fight against terrorism, custody of people who don't follow the law, regulation of the press, regulation of religions, and suppression of terrorist/independence/secessionist movements. In 1989, the illegal student protests and illegal occupation of Tiananmen Square in Beijing were put to an end after martial order being declared, but ignored by the illegal student organization for 15 days.
   
   In 1997 Hong Kong was returned to the PRC by the United Kingdom and in 1999 Macao was returned by Portugal. Presently, the ROC does not pursue any of the territories on mainland China, Tibet, or Mongolia claimed by the PRC. The PRC has used diplomatic and economic pressure to advance its One China policy, which attempts to displace the ROC in official world organizations such as the World Health Organization and the Olympic Games. Below that, there have been prefectures, subprefectures, departments, commanderies, districts, and counties. Recent divisions also include prefecture-level cities, county-level cities, towns and townships.
   
   Most Chinese dynasties were based in the historical heartlands of China, known as China proper. Various dynasties also expanded into peripheral territories like Inner Mongolia, Manchuria, Xinjiang, and Tibet. The Manchu-established Qing Dynasty and its successors, the ROC and the PRC, incorporated these territories into China. China proper is generally thought to be bounded by the Great Wall and the edge of the Tibetan Plateau. Manchuria and Inner Mongolia are found to the north of the Great Wall of China, and the boundary between them can either be taken as the present border between Inner Mongolia and the northeast Chinese provinces, or the more historic border of the World War II-era puppet state of Manchukuo. China is traditionally divided into Northern China (??) and Southern China (??), the boundary being the Huai River (??) and Qinling Mountains (??

   Geography and climate

   
   China is composed of a vast variety of highly different landscapes, with mostly plateaus and mountains in the west, and lower lands on the east. As a result, principal rivers flow from west to east, including the Yangtze (central), the Huang He (central-east), and the Amur (northeast), and sometimes toward the south (including the Pearl River, Mekong River, and Brahmaputra), with most Chinese rivers emptying into the Pacific Ocean.
   
   In the east, along the shores of the Yellow Sea and the East China Sea there are extensive and densely populated alluvial plains;. In the central-east are the deltas of China's two major rivers, the Huang He and Yangtze River (Chang Jiang). Other major rivers include the Pearl River, Mekong, Brahmaputra and Amur.
   
   In the west, the north has a great alluvial plain, and the south has a vast calcareous tableland traversed by hill ranges of moderate elevation, and the Himalayas, containing our planet's highest point Mount Everest. The northwest also has high plateaus with more arid desert landscapes such as the Takla-Makan and the Gobi Desert, which has been expanding. During many dynasties, the southwestern border of China has been the high mountains and deep valleys of Yunnan, which separate modern China from Burma, Laos and Vietnam.
   
   The Paleozoic formations of China, excepting only the upper part of the Carboniferous system, are marine, while the Mesozoic and Tertiary deposits are estuarine and freshwater or else of terrestrial origin. In the Liaodong and Shandong Peninsulas, there are basaltic plateaus.
   
   The climate of China varies greatly. The southern zone (containing Guangzhou) has a subtropical climate.
   
   Due to a prolonged drought and poor agricultural practices, dust storms have become usual in the spring in China."Beijing hit by eighth sandstorm". While over a hundred ethnic groups have existed in China, the government of the People's Republic of China officially recognizes a total of 56. This is identical to Cantonese (Guangzhou-hua) being used to generalize the diverse Yue dialects.--> Yue (Cantonese), Min, Xiang, Gan, and Hakka. Non-Sinitic languages spoken widely by ethnic minorities include Zhuang (Thai), Mongolian, Tibetan, Uyghur (Turkic), Hmong and Korean.Languages. Spoken variants other than Standard Mandarin are usually not written, except for Standard Cantonese (see Written Cantonese) which is sometimes used in informal contexts.
   
   Chinese banknotes are multilingual and contain written scripts for Standard Mandarin (Chinese characters and Hanyu Pinyin), Zhuang (Roman alphabet), Tibetan (Tibetan alphabet), Uyghur (Arabic alphabet) and Mongolian (traditional Mongolian alphabet).

   Religion

   
   Due to the Cultural Revolution, 59% of the mainland Chinese from the People's Republic of China (PRC), or about 767 million people, identify themselves as non-religious or atheist.World Desk Reference. ISBN 0-7566-1099-0 However, religion and rituals play a significant part in the lives of many in the PRC, especially the traditional beliefs of Buddhism, Confucianism and Taoism. This is in contrast to the demographics of religion in the Republic of China (Taiwan) which was not affected by the Cultural Revolution in the People's Republic of China. According to the official figures released by the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) of the United States of America:
   
   • 93% of Taiwanese are adherents of a combination of Buddhism, Confucianism, and Taoism.
     
   • 2.5% of Taiwanese are adherents of other religions, such as Islam, Judaism, and others.
     
   • 4.5% of Taiwanese are adherents of Christianity, this group includes a combination of Protestants, Catholics, Mormons, and other non-denominational Christian groups.
     

   The major religions of the People's Republic of China are:
   

   • Confucianism
     
   • Taoism
     
   • Ancestor worship
     
   • Buddhism
     
   • Islam
     
   • Christianity
     

   The major religions of the Republic of China (Taiwan) are:
   

   • Buddhism
     
   • Taoism
     
   • Confucianism
     

   Only about 6% of the mainland Chinese population in the PRC are avowed Buddhists, with Mahayana Buddhism and Zen Buddhism being the most widely practiced, in contrast to the combined 93% of the ROC (Taiwan) population who are devout adherents of a symbiotic combination of Buddhism, Taoism, and Confucianism. Other forms of Buddhism, such as Theravada Buddhism and Tibetan Buddhism, are practiced largely by ethnic minorities along the geographic fringes of the PRC.Macintosh, R. Retrieved April 15, 2006. Official figures indicate that there are currently about 20 million Muslims (mostly Hui), more than 15 million Protestants, and 5 million Catholics in the country."China (includes Tibet, Hong Kong, and Macau)". Among the younger, urban secular population, Taoist spiritual ideas of Feng Shui have become popular in recent years, spawning a large home decoration market in China.
   

   In recent years Falun Gong has attracted great controversy after the government labeled it a malicious cultenglish.people.com.cn/english/200102/02/eng20010202_61435.html and attempted to eradicate it. exact numbers are unknown.
   

   Culture

   
   Confucianism was the official philosophy throughout most of Imperial China's history, and mastery of Confucian texts was the primary criterion for entry into the imperial bureaucracy. China's traditional values were derived from various versions of Confucianism and conservatism. There was often conflict between the philosophies, such as the individualistic Song Dynasty neo-Confucians, who believed Legalism departed from the original spirit of Confucianism. Columbia University.
   
   With the rise of Western economic and military power beginning in the mid-19th century, non-Chinese systems of social and political organization gained adherents in China. In essence, the history of 20th century China is one of experimentation with new systems of social, political, and economic organization that would allow for the reintegration of the nation in the wake of dynastic collapse.
   
   The first leaders of the PRC were born in the old society but were influenced by the May Fourth Movement and reformist ideals. Many observers believe that the period following 1949 is a continuation of traditional Chinese dynastic history, while others say that the CPC's rule has damaged the foundations of Chinese culture, especially through political movements such as the Cultural Revolution, where many aspects of traditional culture were labeled "regressive and harmful" or "vestiges of feudalism" by the regime. They further argue that many important aspects of traditional Chinese morals and culture, such as Confucianism, Chinese art, literature, and performing arts like Beijing opera, were altered to conform to government policies and communist propaganda. Today, the PRC government has accepted much of traditional Chinese culture as an integral part of Chinese society, lauding it as an important achievement of the Chinese civilization and emphasizing it as being vital to the formation of a Chinese national identity.
   

   Arts, scholarship, and literature

   Chinese characters have had many variants and styles throughout Chinese history. Calligraphy is a major art form in China, more highly regarded than painting and music. Manuscripts of the Classics and religious texts (mainly Confucian, Taoist, and Buddhist) were handwritten by ink brush. Calligraphy later became commercialized, and works by famous artists became prized possessions.
   
   Printmaking was developed during the Song Dynasty. Some classical scholars, however, were noted for their daring depictions of the lives of the common people, often to the displeasure of authorities.
   The Chinese invented numerous musical instruments, such as the Zheng (?), Qin (?), Sheng (?), Xiao (? or ?), and Erhu (??), that have later spread throughout East Asia and Southeast Asia, particularly to Japan, Korea and Vietnam.
   

   Sports and recreation

   
   There is evidence that a form of football (i.e. Besides football, the most popular sports are martial arts, table tennis, badminton, basketball, American football, and more recently, golf. The NBA has a great following and many idolize Yao Ming.
   
   There are also many traditional sports. China finished first in medal counts in each of the Asian Games since 1982,www.dohaasiangames.org/en/asian_games_2006/history.html and in the top four in medal counts in each of the Summer Olympic Games since 1992.www.olympic.org/uk/games/index_uk.asp The 2008 Summer Olympics, officially known as the Games of the XXIX Olympiad, will be held in Beijing, China.
   
   Physical fitness is highly regarded. Morning exercises are a common activity and the elderly are often seen practicing qigong in parks.
   
   Board games such as International Chess, Go (Weiqi), and Xiangqi (Chinese chess) are also common and have organised formal competitions.

   Science and technology

   
   In addition to the cultural innovations mentioned above, technological inventions from China include:
   
   • Asian abacus
     
   • Blast furnace (steel)
     
   • Block Printmaking / Printing Technology
     
   • Bronze
     
   • Calipers
     
   • Clock
     
   • Compass
     
   • Crossbow
     
   • Dry dock
     
   • Fans
     
   • Fireworks and solid-fuel rocket
     
   • Fishing pole (hook)
     
   • Gunpowder
     
   • Glider
     
   • Hot air balloon
     
   • Kite
     
   • Lacquer
     
   • Matches
     
   • Paper
     
   • Paper money and necessary monetary institutions
     
   • Parachute
     
   • Petroleum well
     
   • Piston pump
     
   • Porcelain (China)
     
   • Propeller
     
   • Relief map
     
   • Rudder
     
   • Seed drill
     
   • Seismograph
     
   • Silk
     
   • Stirrup
     
   • Suspension bridge
     
   • Toilet Paper
     
   • Toothbrush
     
   • Umbrella
     
   • Wallpaper
     
   • Wheelbarrow
     
   • Whiskey (medicinal/surgical use)
     

   Other areas of technological study:
   

   • Mathematics, applied to architecture and geography. Pascal's Triangle, known as Yanghui Triangle in China, was discovered by mathematicians Chia Hsien, Yang Hui, Zhu Shijie and Liu Ju-Hsieh, about 500 years before Blaise Pascal was born.
     
   • Biology, such as pharmacopoeias of medicinal plants.
     
   • Traditional medicine and surgery have achieved recognition over the last few decades in the West as alternative and complementary therapies.
     
   • Military innovations, such as the crossbow and the grid sight, the crossbow stirrup, repeating crossbows, the trebuchet, poison gas (smoke from burning dried mustard), tear gas made from powdered lime, relief maps for battle planning, manned kites, the fire lance, rockets, gunpowder incendiaries, and early bronze cannon.
     

   See also

   
   
   
   • Chinese calendar
     
   • Chinese cuisine
     
   • Chinese dragon
     
   • Chinese State Flood Control and Drought Relief Headquarters
     
   • Chinese name
     
   • Chinese New Year
     
   • Chinese units of measurement
     
   • Fenghuang
     
   • History of postage in China
     
   • Military history of China
     
   • Overseas Chinese
     

   Notes